| References: | Computer Ethics, Chapter 1 |
| Computers and Ethics in the
Cyberage. Various papers. |
|
| Maner, W., 1996. Unique
Ethical Problems in Information Technology. |
|
| Moor, J.H., 1985. What
is Computer Ethics. |
Merriam-Webster Online defines "ethics" as "the discipline dealing with what is good and bad and with moral duty and obligation"
According to Kesar and Rogerson, "The term 'ethics' refers to a code or set of principles by which people live and involves a process of self-reflection" (Kesar and Rogerson (1998) Developing Ethical Practices to Minimize Computer Misuse, Social Science Computer Review 16, no. 3 (fall 1998): 240-251. Reprinted in Computers and Ethics in the Cyberage, pp218-232).
The definitions of ethics mentions "moral duty", "obligation" and "self-reflection", indicating that it's not enough to simply know the difference between good and bad, but that your decisions and actions should be ethically correct, and that you have a responsibility to do so. Clearly, we spend most of our time not doing "bad" things. We don't go around pushing people under motor vehicles. We don't go around damaging property. Why not? Is it because of the chances of being caught and punished? Is it because we were brought up "right"? Is it because we wouldn't like others to do such things to us? Have we never really thought about it before, but now that we have it sounds like fun?
How are good and bad defined? Who decided that something is socially acceptible, while some other action is not? What if an action does some good and some bad? Is it ever justifiable to do bad? Are there degrees of good and bad? Can bad things be done to prevent worse things from happening? Is something good or bad in itself, or is only the result of its actions (the effects) that determines what makes something good or bad? Who decides what's good and what's bad?
We are part of a society and we live in an environment. Our actions have consequences on others in our society and on the environment in which we live. Hopefully, we grow up learning how to be responsible and considerate, being "shown the way to behave" by our parents and extended family members. The test of our morality arises when we are faced with an ethical situation. A wallet lies on the pavement in front of you. What do you do? We're taught to take it straight to a police station, where they will do their best to make sure it gets back to its rightful owner. But are we tempted to look inside, just to see if it contains any money? Are we tempted to keep it?
There is some debate about whether there should be a discipline called "Computer Ethics". Maner coined the term in 1980, claiming that there are some ethical issues which are unique to IT. Moor claims that "computer ethics is the analysis of the nature and social impact of computer technology and the corresponding forumation and justification of policies for the ethical use of such technology". Hodges, however, claims that there is nothing about computing which deserves special attention (should their be tractor ethics for drivers of tractors?). Indeed, computing professionals seem merely to share a common tool (the computer), rather than sharing a common set of activities, concerns or standards. In addition, computers can be misused or abused by people who would not necessarily be considered members of the computer profession (children with a computer, an internet connection and knowledge).
Clearly, we are faced with ethical decisions on an almost daily basis as human beings, but computers do seem to bring something special to the equation. We have been taught to act correctly/responsibly, but Information Technology is a new space. Very few of us have parents and extended family members who can show us the proper, responsible way to behave on the Internet, and using computers. The characteristics which epitomise the role that computers can play to support or even encourage unethical behaviour in others include: it is so accessible - practically anybody can learn how to use a computer and a simple scripting language; there is extensive help available to support anti-social and unethical practices - via the internet, for those who can figure out how to find it; its effects are so wide-reaching - viruses can rapidly spread to millions of machines in a matter of hours, with minimal effort required of the virus writer; the victims are usually far away from the "scene of the crime" - the criminal does not have to face the hard reality of actually seeing first-hand the harm he or she causes.
Under Maltese Law, a law is a regulation or set of regulations that have been discussed and agreed to in Parliament. A law can be legally enforced, usually also specifying the penalties that can be imposed on those found to have broken the law. Only a judge or a jury can decide whether a law has been broken.
On the other hand, ethics, often organised into a Code of Ethics for professionals or for members of a professional organisation, are principles by which members of the profession or professional organisation agree to act or behave. The penalty for breaching the Code of Ethics is usually limited to termination of membership (expulsion from the organisation), unless the Code of Ethics is also regulated by law. For example, the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) has a Code of Ethics for its members. Breaching the Code can result in termination of membership. However, under Maltese law, membership of the Engineering Profession (for example) is regulated by the Engineering Profession Act (Chapter 321 of the Laws of Malta). Being in breach of the regulations can result in a fine, a jail sentence, and/or revokation of the engineering warrant, without which an engineer cannot practice.
Practices that appear to be unethical are not always recognised as such by the society in which the practices occur. For example, there are examples in Malta of senior civil servants being on the Board of Directors of private limited liability companies that provide services, won via a tendering process, to the civil service. There are examples of directors of parastatal companies being shareholders in subsidiary companies which provide the parent company with a service. Practices which are recognised as unethical, but which are frequently not illegal include members of the judiciary employed by or who are directors of private companies; lecturers teaching their students factually incorrect material; promoting a particular product (software, hardware, books, machines, etcs.,) when the promoter is a shareholders of, employed by, or commissioned by the company producing that product, and the interest has not been declared; nepotism.
See the index page.
For the next lecture, we will discuss, in a very narrow arena, the ethical issues surrounding the virus epidemic. It is narrow because we are not necessarily looking at all the contributory elements in the historical perspective of computer viruses. This means that the results of our discussion may be incomplete and consequently unfair. However, this will be a useful exercise in looking at a situation which is created in and effects only computer-based environments. First visit the following Web pages which give a brief history of computer viruses:
A
Short History of Computer Viruses and Attacks
Next read the article "Virus Outbreaks: Are they Microsoft's fault?", the Forum which is accessible from the same page, Want PC Security? Diversify! and "Suit Holds Microsoft Responsible for Worm Holes (TechNews.com)". Of course, feel free to find other articles that may help you formulate an argument.
You will spend the next lecture discussing, from a limited perspective, who is ethically or morally responsible for computer viruses, so please come prepared.
Date last amended: Monday, 8th February 2010