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CIS3090 - Social and Professional Issues in Computing

Lecture 8 - Professional Ethics

Christopher Staff, Department of Computer Science and AI

References: Computer Ethics, Chapter 3



Donald Gotterbarn Computer Ethics: Responsibility Regained

What is a profession?

Merriam-Webster defines a profession as "a calling requiring specialized knowledge and often long and intensive academic preparation". The term "professional", however, can refer to a member of a profession, or more frequently, to somebody who performs a task for "a living" (as opposed to "amateur", e.g., footballer, painter-decorator, mechanic).

What does it mean to be a professional?

We frequently encounter the term "computer professional". Indeed, in Malta, the idea has been floated of putting a job in computing on a par with engineering, say, by introducing a warrant to identify the "IT professional". But what does it mean, exactly, to introduce a licence or a warrant to practice a profession? And what is "professional ethics"? Are these ethics to which professionals must, but which non-professionals do not need to, adhere?

For instance, I am an academic who is also a "computer professional". Are my responsibilities different from another academic who is a lawyer, or one who is a historian? Are my responsibilities different from other computer professionals who are not academics? How do we differ from "ordinary" citizens, or even other professionals?

For example, if you are subpoenaed to give evidence against a defendent, not only must you give evidence, but you must also tell the truth. However, a defendent's lawyer cannot be forced to give evidence against his or her client - even if the defendent has "confessed" to the lawyer!

If you use excessive force in attempting to detain somebody you suspect of having stolen something from you, you can be charged with grievous or aggravated bodily harm. The police, however, may use excessive force in the execution of their duties, and if the suspect fights back, he or she can be charged with resisting arrest!

A doctor has the right to prescribe and administer controlled drugs to patients. A civil engineer can order a building closed if it does not adhere to safety standards; an electrical engineer can prevent access to an electrical installation which he or she deems to be unsafe; a priest can listen to confession and cannot be forced to divulge the secret. People in these professions appear to be able to do things which cannot be done by ordinary citizens. Indeed, if an ordinary citizen appears to do any of these things they will be breaking the law!

How can some members of society receive the right to behave in ways that would be considered to be criminal activities if performed by other citizens? With these extra privileges come extra responsibilities. Drugs can be prescribed only to treat ailments: they cannot be prescribed simply because the "patient" is addicted to them (unless the prescription is part of a recognised treatment for the addiction). These roles and responsibilities are usually described by a Code of Ethics and by legislation (and will be discussed in the next lecture), but today we will concentrate on the characteristics of professions that attempt to set themselves apart from ordinary jobs.

Characteristics of Professions

Must professions be strongly differentiated? It is necessary to authorise individuals to do something that would otherwise be considered illegal for the individual to be recognised as a member of a profession? Is computing strongly differentiated? Is there anything in the IT profession which would be illegal if it was performed by the ordinary citizen? Perhaps the closest we get in IT is to do with repairs to equipment still under warranty performed by unauthorised personnel. This will invalidate the warranty. But this is not restricted to IT. It happens with any equipment while it is under warranty. And it usually is not covered by legislation - but by the warranty agreement.

Perhaps a similar situation arises in IT when software is subject to a maintenance agreement. It simply would not do to allow third-parties access to source code and allow them to modify it, and then expect the client to invoke your services under the maintenance agreement to fix any problems that arise. However, these examples are not particularly suitable either, because no one other than the official maintainers would be allowed to modify the source code... not even other IT professionals!

Let's say that we want to raise computing out of the mire and refer to it as a profession, because we want our chosen careers to be considered among the respected careers. Let's assume that there are people out there who call themselves computer professionals simply because they have a computer and they've learnt some programming language or other. They happen to be pretty good at marketing their services, and because they operate out their bedroom they have low overheads and can offer their services for next to nothing. You, on the other hand, have sacrificed four years of your life to study IT at University and you expect a high salary when you graduate. These relatively unskilled (compared to you) workers are making it difficult for you to find a job that pays you what you feel you deserve. What can you do about it?

First and foremost, these are the wrong reasons for wanting to create a profession. Nobody has a right to demand protectionism in their careers. This is tantamount to refusing to recognise qualifications obtained from another country as being equivalent to qualifications obtained from this country. That is essentially a discriminatory practice to ensure protectionism. The real motivation for creating a profession must come from a desire to protect the client. Why cannot just anyone see patients, diagnose ailments, and prescribe medication? Why must a defendent select a barrister to defend them, if they won't defent themselves? Why can't a defendent choose a good friend of their's "who knows what they are really like", and who won't charge the earth? The reason is that client needs to know that the professional knows their job and is committed to protecting the client. The client also knows that he or she can complain about the way the professional has performed, and that the professional can be prevented from practicing if he or she has not acted professionally!

The following are recognised as being characteristics of professions (from Johnson):

Mastery of an Esoteric Body of Knowledge

A profession is usually associated with a body of knowledge which practitioners usually acquire through tertiary education. Practitioners frequently need to keep themselves up to date with advances in their profession. Apprenticeship!

Formal Organisation

Professions usually have a single, co-ordinating organisation which is recognised by the State/Government. The organisation decides on membership criteria (qualifications, experience) and set standards for practice. Frequently, the organisation will be self-regulatory, and have an Ethics Committee or Disciplinary Commission to deal with cases of alleged misconduct amongst its members. It will frequently be authorised to issue and revoke licences or warrants, and the practice of the profession by individuals without such licence or warrant may result in legal action being taken against the offender.

Autonomy

Professionals are usually recognised as experts (though not necessarily specialists!) because of the esoteric knowledge which they have had to master. Whereas non-professionals are frequently expected to take orders from others, the professional is usually expected to make decisions for and on behalf of the client.

Autonomy is also recognised at the collective level. The organisation may taken disciplinary action against its members. The organisation decides what knowledge should be possessed by its members, and how frequently members must demonstrate that they are keeping up with advances in their field.

Code of Ethics

Members of a profession are governed by a Code of Ethics which is used to maintain standards and to act as a public declaration of the standards that the public can expect. Breaches of the Code of Ethics are considered serious misconduct and often result in the expulsion of the offender and revocation of the warrant to practice. We will look at examples of Codes of Ethics of a variety of professionals in the next lecture.

Social Function

Many professional groups fulfil a single important social function. Medicine promotes social health; lawyers participate in the legal system; auditors publically sanction the activities of a commercial organisation; architects design and certify public buildings which are safe; electrical engineers build and certify electrical installations...

Typically, a professional is engaged in analysis, design, and certification. A professional knows and can apply standards in their field. A professional is committed to a publicly declared Code of Ethics, and belongs to a professional organisation which vouches for the authenticity of the member, the currency of the member's knowledge, and which can take disciplinary action against members accused of misconduct. The professional puts the client's interests before his or her own, and is committed to protecting the reputation of the profession.

Is Computing a Profession?

This topic will be the subject of a group discussion.


For further information e-mail cstaff@cs.um.edu.mt

Date last amended: Monday, 25th November, 2002