The Sexuality of Babies
New borns -Boys have reflex erections, girls vaginal lubrication, i.e. sexual reflexes are already operating at the very start of infancy. Genital play - boys from 6-7 months, girls 10,11 months Masturbation to the point of orgasm can be observed in both as young as 6 months, later more concealed.

The child does not develop in a vacuum, but in a world of unconscious desires amongst all around him or her.

"A child's intercourse with anyone responsible for his care affords him an unending source of sexual excitation and satisfaction from his erotogenic zones. This is especially so since the person in charge of him, who after all, is as a rule his mother, herself regards him with feelings derived from her own sexual life. She strokes him, kisses him, rocks him, and quite clearly treats him as a substitute for a complete sexual object". Three essays, Freud.

The study of attachment has defined attachment as the active, affectionate, reciprocal relationship specifically between two individuals, as distinguished from all other persons. The interaction between the two individuals continues to strengthen the bond that is felt between them. This type of relationship is seen between adult couples and also between a mother and child. Object relations therapists hypotheses that the latter needs to have taken place successfully before the second can occur. Thus the importance of the bonding between the baby and his/her caretaker is thought to be of fundamental importance.

Furthermore the quality of the first relationship is thought to influence the sexual development of the infant. If the baby is not given the opportunity to be held and cuddled it is thought that his/her sexual expression in adulthood may be influenced.

Freud went so far as to claim that it is pre-existence of adult sexual desires that ensures the sexuality of the child. "The child does not develop in a vacuum, but in a world of unconscious desires amongst all around him or her. A child's intercourse with anyone responsible for his care affords him an unending source of sexual excitation and satisfaction from his erotogenic zones. This is especially so since the person in charge of him, who after all, is as a rule his mother, herself regards him with feelings derived from her own sexual life. She strokes him, kisses him, rocks him, and quite clearly treats him as a substitute for a complete sexual object". Three essays

Whether or not this view is accepted, it seems clear that in the infant general body contact and cuddling serves the purpose of arousing sensitivity in the body and stimulating the growth of sexual consciousness (Martinson 1973). Important phase of infant sexuality from sensuous closeness of parent and child though holding, cuddling and stroking. In fact under conditions of maximum-security movements of infants in contact with their mother which involved trusting similar to coital movements around the age of 8-10 months, (Lewis 1965).

Spitz and Wolf (1949) wrote about autoerotic activity in one's first year of life. The results of their observation establish a link between good object relations and the manifestations of spontaneous genital play at that age. They determined that a certain amount of development is a prerequisite for the appearance of genital play" and that the closer the mother and child relationship... the more infants we find manifesting genital play." By contrast a link exists between the deprivation of good mothering and the lack of an infant's development. In a later study it was confirmed that if the mother/infant contact is positive the infant engages in genital play. If not, as in orphanages genital play is rare- replaced by rocking or head banging- later these children tend to be violent or aggressive (Prescott and McKay 1973).

Kleenman (1965) explains theses findings by saying: " Auto erotic activities are absent when object relations are absent; good maternal-infant relations facilitate the discharge of the maturational drive representatives in the form of self-stimulation."(p.105)

Object relations theory examines the quality of this early relationship and its repercussions on adult relationships and sexual capacity. The theory which is put forward argues that a child who has been deprived of warm, close bonding may experience difficulties later on in forming intimate relationships or, more speculatively, in being comfortable with his/her sexuality.

The experiments on baby rhesus monkeys by Harlow and Harlow (1962) confirms this possibility. The baby monkeys, which had been breed away from their mother, and had only obtained nutrition from wire-mesh or cloth "mothers, when put with normally reared rhesus monkeys, did not know how to interact sexually, confused and unable to interact normally. When these monkeys became mothers, they were inadequate at caring for their young, often abandoning their infants. However when the second baby was born to them their parenting skills had improved. Harlow and Harlow hypotheses that the first infants attempts at being nurtured had somehow repaired some of the damage caused by the lack of touch and affectionate holding suffered when the mothers were infants.

1. Chromosomes; female; 2 X--XX, male: one X and one Y. Otherwise - chromosomes disorders e.g. XXY males

2. Gonads; 2 primitive gonads form in 5 or 6 week. Bipotential depending on events to come. In presence of male factor (a gene on the Y chromosome) gonads develop into testis. In presence of female factor gonads develop into ovaries. If the primitive gonads were to be removed at this stage of development, the baby would always be born anatomically female, even if it were genetically XY.

3. Hormones; in male: testis start producing steroids-testosterone- esp. between 10th and 18th week. Lead to the development of internal and external genitalia. In female: if steroids are absent development is on female lines. "Nature's rule is, it would appear, that to masculanise, something must be added" (Money & Ehrardt, 1972) referring to testosterone.

4. Internal sexual organs; potential for developing both male and female internal sexual organs, the fetal testis secretes the two types of hormones which cause the development of Wolfian duct (and Vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and ejaculatory ducts) and causes regression of Mullerian duct (MIF). Unless MIF is present -female development: development of uterus, fallopian tube and upper vagina.

5. External genitalia and secondary sexual characteristics; Continued Androgen milieu-- male sexual organs No hormones-- female development

6. The gender assigned at birth ('It's a girl'); If two babies with the same biological sex (as shown by their chromosomes and gonads) were assigned opposite sexes at birth- the sex of assignment proved dominant over biological sex-in terms of gender identity and gender role (Money). Gender role-Stereotypes of what women and men should do, feel and be. Outward expression of maleness or femaleness in social settings. The outward expression of your gender identity. However there are some cases reported where not the assignment but the biological sex was the major force (Dominican Republic's Penis at twelve cases)

7. Gender identity ('I am a girl') - An individual's private and personal perception of being male or female. Is the result of the interaction between biological, social and psychological factors. The inner experience of one's gender role. Pseudohemaphrodism and ambiguous external genitals cases points to critical stage in psychological development when belief; I am male/female becomes fixed Stroller (1968) -core gender identity-between 2 and 4 -related to appropriate stage in cognitive development. Some reports of reassignment at 13 or 14 (Diamond 1965). Probably depends on degree of uncertainty about child's identity. J Money.

8. Sexual differentiation of the brain lead to structural differences between male and female and prenatal programming which determine pattern of function of hypothalamus and pituitary gland during and after puberty. Boy: constant level of sex hormone production. Girl: cyclic sex hormone production.

Each of these levels leads on to the next in this developmental process (except the last which develops on parallel with the other stages).

Let us trace the development of sexual differentiation. When a sperm cell fertilizes an ovum, 23 chromosomes from male parent normally combine with 23 chromosomes from the female parent. The zygote, the beginning of a new human being, is only 1/175 of an inch long. Yet, on this tiny stage, one's stamp as a unique individual has already been ensured--whether one will have black or blond hair, grow bald or develop a widow's peak, or become male or female.

The chromosomes from each parent combine to form 23 pairs. The 23rd pair is the sex chromosomes. An ovum carries an X sex chromosome, but a sperm carries either an X or a Y sex chromosome. If a sperm with an X sex chromosome fertilizes the ovum, the newly conceived person will normally develop as a female, with an XX sex chromosomal structure. If the sperm carries a Y sex chromosome, the child will normally develop as a male (XY).

After fertilization, the zygote divides repeatedly. After a few short weeks one cell has become billions of cells. At about 3 weeks a primitive heart begins to drive blood through the embryonic bloodstream. At about 5 to 6 weeks, when the embryo is only 'i/4 to 1/2 inch long. primitive gonads, ducts, and external genitals whose gender cannot be distinguished visually have formed (see Figure). Each embryo possesses primitive external genitals, a pair of sexually undifferentiated gonads, and two sets of primitive duct structures, the Mullerian (female) ducts and the Wolffian (male) ducts.

During the first 6 weeks or so of prenatal development, embryonic structures of both genders develop along similar lines and resemble primitive female structures. At about the seventh week after conception, the genetic code (XX or XY) begins to assert itself, causing changes in the gonads, genital ducts, and external genitals. The Y sex chromosome causes the testes to begin to differentiate. Ovaries begin to differentiate if the Y chromosome is absent. Some rare individuals who have only one X sex chromosome instead of the typical XY or XX arrangement also become females, since they too lack the Y chromosome (Angler, 1990).

Thus, the basic blueprint of the human embryo is female. The genetic instructions in the Y sex chromosome cause the embryo to deviate from the female developmental course. "Adams" develop from embryos that otherwise would become "Eves."

By about the seventh week of prenatal development, the Y sex chromosome stimulates the production of H-Y antigen, a protein that fosters the development of testes. Strands of tissue begin to organize into somniferous tubules. Female gonads begin to develop some- what later than male gonads. The forerunners of follicles that will bear ova are not found until the fetal stage of development, about 10 weeks after conception. Ovaries begin to form at II or 12 weeks.

Without the influence of male sex hormones, or androgens, we would all develop into females (Anger, 1994; Federman, 1994). Once the testes develop in the embryo, they begin to produce androgens. The most important androgen, testosterone, spurs differentiation of the male (Wolffian) duct system (see Figure). Each Wolffian duct develops into an epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicle. The external genitals, including the penis, begin to take shape at about the eighth week of- development under the influence of- androgen, dihydrtestestosterone (DHT). Yet another testicular hormone, one secreted during the fetal stage, prevents the Mullerian ducts from developing into the female duct system. It is appropriately termed the Mullerian inhibiting substance (MIS).

Small amounts of androgens are produced in female fetuses, but they are not normally sufficient to cause male sexual differentiation. In female fetuses, the relative absence of androgens causes the degeneration of the Wolffian ducts and prompts development of the female sexual organs. The Mullerian ducts evolve into fallopian tubes, the uterus and the upper two thirds of tile vagina. These developments occur even in the absence of` female sex hormones. Although female sex hormones are crucial in puberty, they are not involved in fetal sexual differentiation. If a fetus with an XY sex chromosomal structure failed to produce testosterone, it would develop female sexual organs.

Descent of the Testes and the Ovaries
The testes and ovaries develop from slender structures high in the abdominal cavity. By about 10 weeks after conception, they have descended so that they are almost even with the upper edge of the pelvis. The ovaries remain there for the rest of the prenatal period. Later they rotate and descend farther to their adult position in the pelvis. About four months after conception the testes normally descend into the scrotal sac through the inguinal canal. After their descent, this passage way is closed.

In a small percentage of males, one or both testes remain undescended. They remain in the abdomen at birth. The condition is termed cryptorchidism. In most cases of cryptorchidism, the testes migrate to the scrotum during infancy. In still other cases the testes descend by puberty. Men with undescended testes are usually treated through surgery of hormonal therapy, since the condition places them at higher risk of, cancer of the testes. Sperm production is also impaired because the undescended testes are subjected to a higher-than-optimal body temperature, causing sterility.

Abnormalities of the sex chromosomes can have profound effects on sexual characteristics, physical health, and psychological development. Klinefelter syndrome, a condition that affects about I in 500 males, is caused by an extra X sex chromosome, so the man has an XXY rather than an XY pattern. Men with this pattern fail to develop appropriate secondary sex characteristics. They have enlarged breasts, poor muscular development, and, because they fail to produce sperm, they are infertile. They also tend to be mildly retarded.

Turner syndrome, found only in women, occurs in I in 2,000-5,000 girls. It is caused by the loss of some X sex chromosome material. These girls develop typical external genital organs, but they are short in stature and their ovaries do not develop or function normally. Girls with Turner syndrome tend to be involved in fewer social activities and to have more academic problems relative to girls without Turner syndrome (Rovet & Ireland, 1994). However, they do not have major social or behavioral problems.

The brain, like the genital organs, under-goes prenatal sexual differentiation. Testosterone causes cells in the hypothalamus of male fetuses to become insensitive to the female sex hormone estrogen. In the absence of testosterone, as in female fetuses, the hypothalamus does develop sensitivity to estrogen.
Sensitivity to estrogen is important in the regulation of the menstrual cycle of women after puberty. The hypothalamus detects low levels of estrogen in the blood at the end of each cycle anti initiates a new cycle by stimulating the pituitary gland to secrete FSH. FSH, in turn, stimulates estrogen production by the ovaries and the ripening of an immature follicle in an ovary. Sexual differentiation of the hypothalamus most likely occurs during the second trimester of fetal development (Pillard & Weinrich,1986).
See also textbook P.222-227.

Hermaphrodites: A person with both male and female reproductive systems as a result of the primitive gonads failing to differentiate properly during embryological stage of development. Usually genetically female, but with internal female parts on one side and internal male parts on the other. Most raised as boys but develop breasts and menstruate at puberty.

Pseudohermaphroditism: A condition in which a person is born with ambiguous genitalia as a result of hormonal abnormalities. The internal organs are usually consistent with chromosome pattern but external genitalia ambiguous or that of other sex.
In females; adrenogenital syndrome. Excess adrenal hormones continue to masculanize individual.
Treatment leads to boyish girls, with fewer fantasies of motherhood. Heterosexual orientation and some marry and reproduce.
In males: androgen insensitivity syndrome. Female internal structure but fail to develop because of MIS. Have undescended testes. Raised as girls but fail to menstruate. Female gender identity and attracted to males. Variation: Dominican Republic's Penis at twelve cases)